Lord of the Flies Book Report Profile

Lord of the Flies, by William Golding, was published in 1954 by Faber and Faber Ltd of London. It is currently published by The Penguin Group of New York. Setting The novel Lord of the Flies is set on a deserted island somewhere on an island in the tropics. The events of the story occur during a fictional war. Main Characters Ralph: A twelve-year-old boy who, at the outset of the boys’ ordeal is elected leader of the group. Ralph represents the rational and the civilized side of humanity.Piggy: An overweight and unpopular boy who, because of his intellect and reason, becomes Ralph’s right-hand man. Despite his intelligence, Piggy is frequently the object of scorn and teasing by the other boys who consider him a misfit in glasses.Jack: Another of the older boys among the group. Jack is already the leader of the choir and takes his power seriously. Envious of Ralph’s election, Jack becomes Ralph’s rival eventually wresting control completely away. Jack represents the animal nature in all of us which, unchecked by the rules of society, quickly degenerates into savagery.Simon: One of the older boys in the group. Simon is calm and peaceful. He acts as a natural foil for Jack. Plot Lord of the Flies opens with a plane full of British schoolboys crashing on a deserted tropical island. With no adults surviving the crash, the boys are left to themselves to try to stay alive. Immediately a sort of informal society springs up with the election of a leader and the setting down of formal objectives and rules. Initially, rescue is foremost on the collective mind, but it is not long before a power struggle ensues with Jack attempting to sway the boys to his camp. Possessing different goals and vastly different sets of ethics, the boys divide into two tribes. Eventually, Ralph’s side of reason and rationality gives way to Jack’s tribe of hunters, and the boys sink deeper and deeper into a life of violent savagery. Questions to Ponder Consider these questions as you read the novel: 1. Examine the symbols of the novel. What is the symbolism of the face paint adopted by Jack’s tribe?What does the conch shell represent?Who or what is the â€Å"Lord of the Flies? Consider the origin of the phrase as well as its significance to the story.How does Golding use disease to extend the allegory in the novel? Consider Piggy’s asthma and Simon’s epilepsy as examples. 2. Examine the conflict between good and evil. Are people inherently good or bad?How are the values of the children painted to align them with a specific side?How is this novel an allegory for society as a whole? 3. Consider the theme of the loss of innocence. In what ways do the boys have their innocence stripped from them?Are there any characters that seem to possess no innocence from the outset and what is their purpose in the novel? Possible First Sentences Lord of the Flies is an allegory for society at large.Innocence is not stripped, it is surrendered.Fear and control are often found together in society.Is morality an innate feature of personality?

The Career That Intrigues Me - 1155 Words

The career that intrigues me is elementary education, which is kindergarten through 8th grade. I am engrossed in this career because I have little siblings that I had to teach them things like reading, math, and writing properly. Also, I just love, love, love little kids and to watch them grow. My personality goes with this career because I am a very kind and considerate person and I like people. My values go with this career because I like having the defiance and the opportunity to do my work in new ways and with independence and diversity. Also, I like feat which is having the feeling that what I do in my work is crucial and making a contribution. Lastly I value my workplace and having the pleasure of working in a satisfying, attractive work space where the supervisors and co-workers are supportive and friendly. I expect that being a teacher at a school will have all these conditions. Kindergarten and elementary school teachers work in public or private schools. Seeing students dev elop new skills and learn information can be very rewarding. The work in this career typically takes place in a classroom in a school. The physical activity involved in this career is walking around the classroom or sitting at a desk grading papers. The clothing that teachers wear should be comfortable, but professional and have individual personality. Some things to avoid are; Sleeveless tops, too much make-up, and not to use too much jewelry. I envision that if you are a teacher, you dress soShow MoreRelatedThe Hidden Curriculum, And The Way That Social Classes Work Within The School System1512 Words   |  7 Pages this is a larger concern than what I believed and this article informed me in that sense. The main points in this article that are touched on include budgeting, the author’s personal experience with the social classes of schools and the impact of the curriculum being effected by the class of the institution. 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The Role of Civil Society in the Free Essays

string(78) " the present regime on governance, economic, security and development issues\." THE ROLE OF CIVIL SOCIETY IN THE DEMOCRATISATION PROCESS IN BOTSWANA INTRODUCTION One of the approaches to democratization is the fostering of civil society organizations. Botswana`s civil society organizations have a role to play in the country’s democratization process. As stated by Maundeni (2005) the argument is that the non-partisan character of Botswana’s civic organisations has not prevented them from participating actively in democratising the public space. We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Civil Society in the or any similar topic only for you Order Now In fact civil society has been portrayed as the prime catalyst for promoting democratisation process in developing countries, Africa in particular. This paper attempts to examine the above assertion in Botswana and posits the roles and contributions of civil society to democratisation process. CONCEPTS AND DEFINITONS WHAT IS CIVIL SOCIETY? The issue of defining what constitutes Civil Society is very controversial; it is defined in various ways. Indeed, the use of these terms in many instances depends on place and time, country and the existing legal framework for registering civil society organizations. Other factors include membership, mission, and form of organization and levels of operation. The World Bank defines civil society/NGOs as: â€Å"An association, society, foundation, charitable trust, non-profit corporation, or other juridical person that is not regarded under the particular legal system as part of the governmental sector and that is not operated for profit — viz. , if any profits are earned, they are not and cannot be distributed as such. It does not include trade unions, political parties, profit-distributing cooperatives, or churches. According to the Commission of European Communities â€Å"Civil society includes the following groups: trade unions and employers’ organizations (social partners); organizations representing social and economic players which are not social partners in the strict sense of the term†¦ non-governmental organizations which bring people together in common cause, such as environmental organizations, human rights organiza tions, charities, professional associations, grass roots organizations; organizations that involve citizens in local and municipal life with a particular contribution from churches and religious communities. At one level, civil society can be described as all organized activity not associated with major institutional systems: government and administration, education and health delivery, business and industry, security and organized religion. They include religious/faith based organizations, cooperatives, trade unions, academic institutions, community and youth groups (Judge 1996). Civil societies are therefore created in the public interests and can do things which neither of the other national development actors-the government and the corporate sector-can do on their own. Civil societies would have as their main objective the improvement in the lives of the poorest and disadvantaged. This is where there is a role for the state: Harriss de Rienzo (1997) suggest that the role played by civil society organizations will depend on the wider political setting, and on ways in which inequalities of power and resources are dealt with in the economic and political arena. DEMOCRACY The word is derived from the Greek word demos, which mean people rule. It can be defined as a system where the authority has its legitimacy in the will of what the people have expressed. Democracy at the same time puts demands on how the people’s will should come to expression. Two principles should apply political equality and principles of freedom. The first principle defines political citizenship and focuses on who should be involved in the political process. The second principle concerns freedoms of all kinds of political opinions that may be expressed during the political process. Democratic government aspires to serve under â€Å"the people† rather than ruling over them. Implementing some form of a voting system, usually involving indirect representation pursues this ideal. It shares links with the concept of a republic. DEMOCRATIZATION Like Civil society, the definition of democratisation has consistently been subjected to analytical scrutiny by social scientists, in particular, the political scientists. In his definition, Conteh-Morgan (1998) argues that democratisation is an increase in political equality and a decrease in coercive rule. Others argue that democratisation is synonymous to democratic consolidation and or the deepening of democratic practices (Diamond et al; 1995). It implies a process through which a political system becomes democratic. It is a process that is made up and caused by different factors; these can be connected with political or socio-economic structures and political institutions in which they act. It is a transition to democratic political systems, where democratic systems are taken to be those approximating to universal suffrage, regular elections, a civil society, the rule of law and an independent judiciary. CIVIL SOCIETY AND DEMOCRATIZATION PROCESS IN BOTSWANA Civil society can be regarded as organisational life that is voluntary, self-generating, self-supporting, and autonomous from the state, and bound by a legal order or set of shared rules. It consists of a vast array of organisations, both formal and informal: interest groups, cultural and religious organisations, civil and developmental associations, issue-oriented movements, the mass media, research and educational institutions, and similar organisations. The difference between these groups and other society groups is that they are concerned with and act in the public realm, relate to the state (without seeking to win control over it), and encompass and respect pluralism and diversity. Civil society consists out of individuals from different groups who are seeking change within a society. Through organising themselves in various forms of protests to show that they demand their rights, civil society has proved to be powerful when a few societies have transformed from non-democracies into democracies. This implies that the functioning of democracy requires a strong civil society, but a civil society that is politicised, and interacts with the state through concrete participation in decision-making processes. TYPES OF CIVIL SOCIETY AND THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS TO DEMOCRATISATION Research and Advocacy Groups: these are few without a membership base but effective think-tank research and policy advocacy NGOs. They have easy access to the Botswana policy makers and have established cordial relationship with the foreign donors. Some of these organisations do not only participate in drafting key policy documents for the governments, they also consult for the present regime on governance, economic, security and development issues. You read "The Role of Civil Society in the" in category "Essay examples" They have contributed significantly through research and advocacy to deepen democratic practices under the present government. In his 2005 edition, Maudeni outlined the role of Democracy Research Project (DRP consisting of a academics) in the democratisation process. He showed that the DRP brought together different stakeholders in a way creating a platform where debates would be initiated and set in motion discussion about ways in which Botswana`s democracy might be improved. Maundeni reckons thus,the non-partisan DRP seeks to spark a democratisation debate nationally and infact has done so on past occassions. It has brought together politicians, academics, civil servants, journalists and traditional chiefs were brought together in a forum in which government politicians and officials did not exercise control over its proceedings. Human Rights and Democracy Advocacy Groups: Women NGOs These organisations advocated for the equality and recognition of women in the society, they were headed by a group of educated and committed women who provided leadership and who have worked as volunteers to bring these organizations to where they are today. The groups include Young Women Christian Association, or Botswana Council of Women. Somolokae (1988) relates that these organisations have been dealing with purely welfare matters for decades and they enjoyed a good relationship with the state. Then during the mid-1980s, radical women’s groups entered the political scene. Examples here included Emang Basadi, and Metlhaetsile. From the onset, these organizations set out to challenge the state on policy issues. Emang Basadi was formed in 1984 to pressure the government to repeal all legislations which were discriminatory against women. At first, the reception was bad. Overtime, Emang Basadi together with other NGOs, began to network and push as a united front. When not much progress was being made, the groups under the leadership of Emang Basadi switched focus to a political agenda. The organization came up with a political education project to sensitize women about their political rights, encouraging them to vote for candidates who are committed to addressing the issues and concerns of women. This strategy seems to have worked as more women than ever showed interest in political power. Ditshwanelo – Botswana Center for Human Rights The Botswana Centre for Human Rights was established in 1993 and since then has remained the only organisation in Botswana dealing with all aspects of human rights. It advocate for changes in laws, policies and practices, and to raise public awareness of rights and responsibilities and also provide paralegal services to those earning less than the minimum wage. Ditshwanelo also targeted its campaigns on the death penalty. In its recent statement commemorating World Day against the Death Penalty on October 10 2012, the NGO remains opposed to the death penalty vows to continue to campaign for its abolition in Botswana. t states that it is particularly concerned about the secretive and arbitrary conduct by the Government of Botswana, in its administration of the death penalty. The group also has partnership with other rights-focused organisations in Botswana, such as those focusing on gender equality or the rights of those affected by HIV/AIDS, complementing the work of its partners, an d focusing on issues least supported by others, including the Basarwa / San (Bushmen), sexual minorities and domestic workers. Trade Unions These are organisations established to influence policies in favour of their members. They are very active in influencing economic and less of political policies. One of the leading and effective members of this group is the Botswana Federation of Public Service Union BOFEPUSU,it is popular in mobilizing workers to go on strike when the need arises and the government is aware of this strength as experienced in 2011. Inaugurating a New Trade Union Education Centre at Gaborone, Botswana on July 10, 1971, President Seretse Khama discussed the role of trade unions – present and future – in his country. He states â€Å"Free trade unions are an essential instrument of participatory democracy. It is through such unions that the workers can not only defend their interests but also make a positive contribution to national development. And if this contribution is to be effective trade unions must be free. They will not be an effective instrument of participatory democracy if they are manipulated by government, or by a political party or by any external agency. A trade union movement must seek to maintain the confidence of all its members irrespective of party affiliation. It must not become the agent of a political party. We in Botswana have given trade unions freedom to represent their members’ interests and to guide the aspirations of our workers so that they make a productive contribution to national growth. We have not given them freedom to promote the interests of political parties or external powers. † In summary, below are the four broad roles that the civil society has been playing to deepen its contribution to the democratisation processes. Monitoring Role- This varies from one programme and organisation to another. The monitoring of the executive and legislatures for accountability and good governance for instance are most prevalent among the specialised research and advocacy NGOs while census, elections and budget implementation monitoring are common among the Network and coalitions. They have been performing this role, pointing to mistakes and how governments can overcome such mistakes. Capacity Building Role- Training and sensitization of citizens on their democratic and human rights and how these rights can be protected e. g. he rights of the citizens to hold accountable the elected representatives etc. This capacity building is not restricted to the citizens alone, the elected representatives have also benefited from such trainings e. g. , democratic control of military and security establishments, the making of participatory and gender sensitive budgets etc. Another remarkable, although, ongoing contribution of civil society to the process of democratisation in Botswana; is the campaign f or a new constitution for the country through the convocation of a sovereign national conference. Disciplinary Role- finally, the civil society has also been mobilising the citizens and call on government to discipline some of the elected representatives and bureaucrats for misconduct while in office through recalls and dismissal (though they have not been successful in this role). More efforts and capacity building- training and fiscal resources are needed to be successful in this role. The challenges of civil society Usually they represent only those sections of the population that are strong and self-aware. The viewpoints of civil society sometimes are conflicting and contradictory and there is a high possibility of susceptibility to foreign governments or foreign groups particularly if the CSO/NGO receives International funding. Sometimes, people working or serving in civil society are drawn to this sector due to the potential incomes they expect to receive rather than the ideology. This is particularly true with people working in NGOS. CONCLUSION The paper critically analysed the roles and contributions of civil society to the process of democratisation in Botswana and argued that the types of civil society and its advocacy strategies to a large extent determine the level of civil society’s contribution to democratic process. Investing in civil society groups whose activities have found resonance with the population is one way to promote the democratization of politics and the full participation of the citizenry in public life. The civil society must continue to employ a collective advocacy role to mobilize consensus for a national agenda of democratization, peace building and national reconciliation. Moving away from individualized, fragmented and disorganized advocacy to collective advocacy is essential to becoming a strong countervailing force. It can also be concluded that civil society plays a critical role in strengthening democracy in that, it brings about the movement from a bureaucratic administration to a more representative administration. Civil society brings about active co-operation and an on-going commitment in the process of policy formulation and implementation between politicians, senior management, frontline workers, and citizens. Civil society encourages the divergence from the traditional regime-driven policy process to one where there is a multiplicity of negotiated determinants of the problem identification, formulation of policy principles, setting of objectives, development of options according to agreed criteria, and the formulation of an implementation strategy. The manner in which this is done and the contribution at various stages in the process characterize democracy. The dynamism of linkages underscored above ascribes to democracy as being about partnerships of all stakeholders in an endeavour to bring about synergies of efforts and resources. The civil society also strengthens democracy through fostering of complex relationships, not only among different institutions of state, but among all the stakeholders, from the most powerful titans to the poorest and most vulnerable people on society’s margins REFERENCES I. Commonwealth Foundation (1995): â€Å"Non-Governmental organization: Guidelines for Good Policy and Practice,† London. II. Conteh-Morgan Earl (1997), Democratization in Africa: the theory and dynamics of political transitions, Preager Pub. Westport, USA III. Diamond, L; Linz Juan; and Lipset Seymour (1995) Politics in Developing Countries: comparing experiences with democracy (Second Edition), Pub Lynne Rienner, London. IV. Emang Basadi (1998) Political Education Project: A Strategy that Works Gaborone: Lentswe la Lesedi. V. Judge, A. 1996) Interacting fruitfully with uncivil society: the Dilemma for Non Civil Society Organizations, (Transnational Associations, Washington DC, ) VI. Holm J. (1996) â€Å"Development, Democracy and Civil Society in Botswana,† in Leftwitch (ed). I. Policy Press, U. K. II. Maundeni Z. (2005) 40 Years of Democracy in Botswana 1965-2005 III. Somolekae G. (1998) Democracy, Civil Society and Governance in Africa :The Case of Botswa na IV. The World Bank (1997): International Center for Not-for-profit Law, 1997. Handbook on Good Practices Relating to Non-Governmental Organizations, Washington How to cite The Role of Civil Society in the, Essay examples

Judicial control over administrative discretion in preventive detention free essay sample

Administrative has to function according to the law and the constitution. It is a fundamental duty laid down against every administrative action that it should not violate the fundamental rights guaranteed by the constitution. For this purpose, the judiciary has an important role to play in protecting the citizen against the arbitrary exercise of administrative action. In India, the judiciary has been given an apex place. However, it is a general rule that court should not interfere with the administrative functions and actions taken by administrative authorities in exercise of discretionary powers. It means that judiciary has no direct control over the administrative actions. Judiciary can act only when their intervention is sought. Infact judicial intervention is restrictive in nature and limited in its scope. Irrespective of this defect, the Supreme Court and high court have been intervening in the administrative actions by way of public interest litigation. Even sometimes, when the situation demands Supreme Court and high courts have authority to take up cases suo moto (on its own motion). We will write a custom essay sample on Judicial control over administrative discretion in preventive detention or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page CHAPTER-II CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS 1. 1 DISCRETIONARY POWERS 1. 1. 1 Judicial control of administrative discretion Discretion means to act according to desire or choose from given options. Administrative discretion means choosing from amongst the variable available alternatives but with reference to the rules of reason and justice and not according to personal whims and fancies. Administrator may use the discretionary powers vested in him. This leaves the administrator free to exercise his power according to his own judgment. The exercise of discretion should not be arbitrary, vague and fanciful. In india, while exercising discretion, the government has to measure it upon the touchstone of constitutional provisions of equality, freedom, and justice. A government needs discretion for the proper conduct of its functions. However it should exercise its power well within the constitutional limits. The actions of administration can be checked at judicial level. The constitution of india has provided the judiciary with the power to review. The courts can keep a check upon any arbitrary exercise of discretionary powers by the administration. 1. 1. 2 Reasons for conferment of discretion on administrative authorities The present day administration problems are of varying nature and it is difficult to comprehend them all within the scope of general rule. Most of the problems are new, practically of the first impression. Lack of any previous experience to deal with them does not warrant the adoption of a general rule. It is not always possible to foresee each and every problem but when a problem arises it must in any case be solved by the administration in spite of specific rules applicable to the situation. Circumstances differ from case to case so that applying one rule mechanically to all case may itself result in injustice. 1. 1. 3 Judicial review of discretionary power Due to parliamentary supremacy no legal limits exist in England on the conferment of discretion on the administrative authorities. But that is not true of the other common law countries whose written constitution determine and regulate the competence of the legislature particularly through the enumeration of the basic rights of individuals. The rule of law requiring that the administration can interfere with the right of an individual only with the authority of law and that the authorization is clearly limited in its content, subject matter, purpose and extent so that the interference is measurable and to a certain extent is foreseeable and calculable by the citizen. The court have consistently insisted that the legislature must observe certain constitutional limits in granting discretion to the administrative authorities but they have not insisted upon a rigid criterion. 1. 2. Judicial review of preventive detention The question of exercising the power of judicial review incase f preventive detention was raised by Mr. Kamath during the stage of drafting ARTICLE 15A (corresponding to the present article 22) of the draft constitution. To this, dr. Ambedkar replied that a writ of habeas corpus could be asked for and issued in any case, but the object of this would be limited to the court finding out whether a man was arrested under any law or merely by executive whim. Once the court was satisfied that he was arrested under some law, habeas corpus comes to an end. However the scope of judicial review is not unlimited because the court is bound to see only whether ARTICLE 22(5) has been complied with by the detaining authority. But it is the duty of the court to see that a law depriving the person of his liberty is strictly complied with and individual liberty is to be curtailed by anticipatory action only in the interest of that which is enumerated in the statute1. The law of preventive detention leaves a very broad discretion with administrative authorities and only a narrow margin for judicial review. 1. 2. 1 Judicial Review on Exercise of Discretion in the case of preventive detention The basic principle of administrative discretion is that administrative discretion cannot be substituted by judicial discretion In AK Gopalan vs state of madras2, it was held that decision as to whether a person shall be detained or not under the preventive detention act lies solely within the power of executive and judiciary cannot substitute such decision with its own decision. Thus, judiciary cannot go into the merits of the case and look into whether the opinion of the authority was right or wrong. 1. 3 GROUNDS OF JUDICIAL CONTROL If an administrative authority is authorized to act in its discretion it has to exercise its discretion in consonance with the purpose of authorization and the legal limits of the discretion has to be observed. An authority shall be deemed to have abused its jurisdiction when it exercises its power for an improper purpose or on extraneous consideration, or in bad faith, or leaves out a relevant consideration or does not exercise the power by itself but of the instance and discretion of someone else. Circumstances under which judicial intervention on exercise of discretion in preventive detention Judiciary has maintained the appearance of respecting the subjective satisfaction of the detaining authority but at the same time review such power on certain grounds3. 1. 3. 1 Subjective satisfaction of the detaining authority Although the law of preventive detention is based on the subjective satisfaction of the detaining authority, it does not confer an unfettered discretion to detain any person at its whim. It is an eternal principle of administrative law that there is nothing like unfettered discretion immune from judicial reviewability. Krishna iyer has rightly emphasized that â€Å"absolute power is anathema under our constitutional order† and that â€Å"naked and arbitrary power is bad in law†. Therefore the courts, while exercising the power of judicial review, ensure that discretion is exercised by the authority concerned according to law. It is regarded as the first principle of of any jurisprudence based on the rule of law that the executive should not exceed its powers. This is also known as the principle of ultra vires. In India, the judiciary has given an extended meaning to the doctrine of ultra vires so as to able to control the discretionary decision of administrative authorities. In the case of preventive detention, they have always examined whether the subjective satisfaction of the detaining authority was arrived at by taking into consideration relevant facts and ignoring irrelevancies. The satisfaction of the executive must be based on right test and right construction of a statute. The satisfaction ought to be based on relevant and non-extraneous consideration 1. 3. 2 Factors on which subjective satisfaction can be challenged 1. 3. 2. 1 Non application of mind If the subjective satisfaction is arrived at without the application of mind and authority passes the detention order mechanically. It can be quashed on this ground. E. g. If the preventive detention law specifies many grounds for detention, then the order must specify the grounds on which detention has been ordered. The order will be set aside if it mentions that the detention has been ordered on ground (a) or (b). The use of the word â€Å"or† indicates that the authority was either not certain or did not apply its mind to determine whether the case fell under one head or the other. Case: Ayya vs state of U. P4 Facts: A Telegram was sent to the senior superintendent of police on behalf of detainee stating that the detainee has been taken into police custody about an hour before the alleged commission of the offence by him but this was not considered by the detaining authority. Judgment: it was held that the order of detention was vitiated on the ground of non-application of mind. Thus, An authority cannot use its discretion without taking into consideration the facts and circumstances of every case. Case: T. Devaki vs government of T. N Facts: Even though the detaining authority was present at the scene of occurrence of the incident, he formed his opinion and made the detention order on a mere perusal of the materials, facts and documents placed before him by police. Judgment : it was held that detention order was vitiated by non-application of mind. Hence, It is also imperative for the detaining authority to form the perquisite opinion honestly and bonafide. It can rely on its own knowledge and perception instead of merely relying on the version of the incident placed before it by the sponsoring authority. 1. 3. 2. 2 Malafides The Supreme Court has given wide meaning to the concept of malafides exercise of power. Mala fides means imputation of bad faith, dishonest intention or corrupt motive. In kalquanmbi vs district magistrate5 held that, Like any other administrative order, an order of preventive detention is also liable to be set aside on the ground of malafides of the detaining authority. Thus, Detention orders can be challenged if made mala fide. Whenever it is established that the order of detention has been made malafides, it must be quashed and the detainee must be released. Case- G. Sadananda vs state of kerala6 In this case, the petitioner, a kerosene dealer was detained under the Defense of India Rules, to prevent him from acting in a manner prejudicial to the maintenance of supplies and services essential to the life of community. The fact were brought before the court to show that the D. S. P. made a false report against the petitioner in order to benefit his relative in the same trade by eliminating the petitioner from the trade, by obtaining the distributorship for kerosene. The D. S. P. filed no affidavit to controvert allegations, and the affidavit filed on behalf of govt. by the Home Secretary was very defective. The SC declared the order of detention to be clearly and plainly mala fide. Thus, In this case- the court concluded that detention of the petitioner was the result of malafides. Malafides would mean anything which is not bonafide or something that is done with an intention which is dishonest. 1. 3. 2. 3 IMPROPER PURPOSE A discretionary power must be exercised on relevant and not on irrelevant or extraneous considerations. It means that detaining power must be exercised taking in to account the consideration mentioned in the statute. If the statute mentions no such considerations, then detentions should be exercised on considerations which are relevant for the purpose for which it is conferred. If the authority concerned takes in to account wholly irrelevant or extraneous circumstance, or matters then the administrative action is ultra-vires and will be Under the National Security Act 1980 (originally preventive detention act 1950) a person could be detained on several grounds mentioned therein. The authority detaining a person is required to communicate the grounds for detention to the detenu. If the person is detained on any ground which is irrelevant, non-existent, extraneous, then the order of preventive detention can be quashed7. Case Ram Manohar Lohia v. State of Bihar8 The petitioner was detained under the Defence of India Rules, 1962 to prevent him from acting in a manner prejudical to the maintenance of law and order whereas the rules permitted detention to prevent subversion of public order. The court struck down the order as in its opinion, the two concept were not the same, law and order being wider then public order. The court insisted that the grounds of detention should be such as have a reasonable relation or nexus or proximate connection with the objects for which an order of detention can be made under the relevant law. SOME OF THE CASES OF REASONS ON WHICH DETENTION OF A PERSON IS ORDERED, NOT HAVING RELEVANCE TO THE GROUNDS MENTIONED IN THE ACT ARE – When a person is detained in the interest of public order, because he published pamphlets containing scurrilous attacks on the judiciary which might undermine the confidence of the people in the proper administration of justice but does not endanger law and order as such. 9 Detention of a person in the interest of maintenance of public order, because he committed a theft of overhead traction wire disrupting rail service for several hours which might interfere with the maintenance of supplies essential to the community but does not threaten the maintenance of public order10. 1. 3. 2. 4 Vague and irrelevant grounds In G. M. SHAH VS JAMMU AND KASHMIR11 A Person was detained as his activities were prejudicial to the security of the state. It was held that security of the state contemplates that the activities of the person are such as to overthrow or overawe the government by force. The detention order was quashed because none of the facts were established on this ground. Thus, Under the act, one of the reasons for detention of a person is that his activities are prejudicial to the maintenance of public order. â€Å"Public order† is a narrow concept as compared with â€Å"law and order†. It is not every contravention of law that can be said to affect public order. It has been pointed out by the Supreme Court that a line of demarcation has to be drawn â€Å"between serious and aggravated forms of disorder which directly affect the community or injure the public interest and relatively minor breaches of peace of a purely local significance which primarily injure specific individuals and only in a secondary sense public interest. 12 In Raisuddin vs Uttar Pradesh13, An order of preventive detention on the ground that the detenu creating the fear and tension in the town of Moradabad resulting in the closure of schools, colleges and shops was held not based on irrelevant grounds as his activities were greatly prejudicial to the maintenance of public order. Thus, If the act of a person creates a panic or fear in the minds of members of the public, such act must be said to have direct bearing on the question of maintenance of public order. In Manu Bushan vs west Bengal14 The ground that the detenu committed a murderous attack on a person causing his death was held to raise only a law and order problem and therefore order of preventive detention was quashed because under the law, preventive detention was authorized on the ground of public order and not law and order. Thus, The ground of â€Å"maintenance of public order† has to be distinguished from â€Å"law and order†. In Ajay Dixit vs Uttar Pradesh15 From a review of detention cases during the last few years, it may be said that judiciary is now more prone to intervene with the administrative determination of the necessity to detain a person than before on the ground of irrelevant considerations. In Prabhdayal vs D. M.. Kammrup16 Held that, A Preventive detention order can also be quashed if it is based on vague grounds because of the reason that vague grounds affect the right of the detenu to make representation. The right to make representation is given to him by the constitution and is not illusory but not real. Hence, Improper purpose has become an important ground to control the exercise of discretionary powers of administrative actions to some extent. 1. 3. 2. 5 Leaving out relevant consideration If in exercising its discretionary power an administrative authority ignores relevant considerations, its action will be invalid. An authority must take in to account the consideration which a statute prescribes expressly and impliedly. In Ashadevi v. K. Shivraj 17 The petitioner was detained with a view to preventing him from engaging in transporting smuggled goods. The detaining authority based its decision on the detenus confessional statement before the custom officers, but the fact having bearing on the question whether his confession was voluntary or not were not placed before authority. It was held that since the authority did not consider vital facts relevant to the detention of the petitioner the detention order was bad. Thus, detention order can be quashed when no relevant grounds are considered. 1. 3. 2. 6 Mixed Considerations In preventive detention cases, the court have taken a strict view of the matter and has held such on order invalid if based on any irrelevant ground along with relevant grounds. In Shibban Lal v. State of U. P. 18 The petitioner was detained on two grounds, first that his activities were prejudicial to the maintenance of supplies of essentials to community and second that his activities were injurious to the maintenance of public order. Later govt. revoked his detention on the first ground as either it was unsubstantial or non existent but continued it on the second. The court quashed the original detention order. 1. 4 Limitations of judicial control All administrative actions are not subject to judicial control. There are many kinds of administrative actions, which cannot be reviewed by the law courts. Even in those administrative actions which are within its jurisdiction, the judiciary cannot by itself take cognizance of excesses on the part of officials. It can intervene only on the request of somebody who has been affected or is likely to be affected by an official action. Judicial process is slow and cumbersome. Remedies offered by the courts are inadequate and ineffective. The government may deprive the person of the remedy granted to him by the court by changing the law or rules thereof. Judicial action is incredibly expensive and cannot therefore be taken. The highly technical nature of most of the administrative actions saps the force of judicial review. The judges are only legal experts and they may have little knowledge of the technicalities and complexities of administrative problems. Their legal bent of mind may hinder them in arriving at a right decision. They have to follow the prescribed procedures and observe some formalities. 1. 5 PREVENTIVE DETENTION IN INDIA Article 22 makes the minimum procedural requirements which must be included in any law enacted by legislature in accordance of which a person is deprived of his personal liberty. Article 22(1) and (2) are also called Rights of an arrested person. Rights of an Arrested Person A person cannot be arrested and detained without being informed why he is being arrested. A person who is arrested cannot be denied to be defended by a legal practitioner of his choice. This means that the arrested person has right to hire a legal practitioner to defend himself/ herself. Every person who has been arrested would be produced before the nearest magistrate within 24 hours. The custody of the detained person cannot be beyond the said period by the authority of magistrate. The Article 22(1) and 22(2) make the above provisions. However, Article 22(3) says that the above safeguards are not available to the following: If the person is at the time being an enemy alien. If the person is arrested under certain law made for the purpose of Preventive Detention. The first condition above is justified, because when India is in war, the citizen of the enemy country may be arrested. But the second clause was not easy to justify by the constituent assembly. This was one of the few provisions which resulted in stormy and acrimonious discussions. 1. 5. 1 Preventive Detention Laws A person can be put in jail / custody for two reasons. One is that he has committed a crime. Another is that he is potential to commit a crime in future. The custody arising out of the later is preventive detention and in this, a person is deemed likely to commit a crime. Thus Preventive Detention is done before the crime has been committed. 1. 5. 2 Historical background of Preventive detention in India India has a long history of Preventive Detention. India is one of the few countries in the world whose Constitution allows for preventive detention during peacetime. The following are some historical landmarks related to Preventive Detention in India. In India the history of preventive detention dates back to the early days of the British rule when under the Bengal Regulation— III of 1818 (the Bengal State Prisoners Regulation) the government was empowered to detain anybody on mere suspicion. Rule 26 of the Rules framed under the Defense of India Act 1939 allowed the detention of a person if it was satisfied with respect to that particular person that such detention was necessary to prevent him from acting in any manner prejudicial to the defense and safety of the country . Post-Independence, the first Preventive Detention Act was passed in 1950. The validity of this act was challenged in the Supreme Court in the Gopalan v/s State of Madras Court. The Supreme Court held this act Constitutionally valid except some provisions. This act expired in 1969, and before it expired, it was amended for 7 times, each expansion was to make it valid for 3 more years and this it was extended till 31 December 1969. In 1971, the Maintenance of Internal Security Act (MISA) was passed. MISA was basically a modified version of the PDA Act. It was abolished in 1978. Another law, Conservation of Foreign exchange and Prevention of Smuggling Activities (COFEPOSA) was enacted in 1974 and it continued. In the heat of the terrorism in Punjab the Terrorist Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act or infamous TADA was enacted in 1985. It was renewed in 1989, 1991 and 1993 and lapsed in 1995 due to increasing unpopularity due to widespread allegations of abuse. The main abuse was that a confession before a police officer, even though being given under torture, was admissible as evidence in court. Another similar act Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance (POTO) of 2001 Came into force. Both the TADA POTO were later succeeded by another controversial. Prevention of Terrorist Activities Act (POTA) during 2002-04. This act Was supported by the NDA Government but later was scrapped by the UPA government. After the Bombay attacks of November 26, 2008 parliament enacted another anti-terror law known as Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act. 1. 5. 3 AMBIT OF THE COURT JURISDICTION IN CASES OF DETENTION The court examines the validity of the law on the ground of competence of the legislature19. I. e. , whether the subject matter of the legislation is covered by the legislation entry relating to preventive detention under which it is purported to have been made. When a law of preventive detention is challenged before the court, the court has got to decide on a consideration of the true nature and character of the legislation whether it is really on the subject of preventive detention or not. The court examines the grounds specified in the order of detention to see whether they are relevant to the circumstances under which preventive detention could be supported. E. g. Security of India or of a state maintenance of public order etc. And set the detenu free if there is no rational connection between the alleged activity of the detenu and the ground relied upon such as public order. The court examines whether the grounds supplied have a relevant connection with the order and would examine the bonafide of the order and interfere if it was malafides, that is to say, if the law of preventive detention was used for any purpose other than that for which it was made20. The court examines the grounds communicated to the detenu to see if they are sufficient to enable him to make an effective representation. Chapter -III Conclusion and suggestions It is clear from the above description and case laws that administrative discretion is like a tool or weapon without which the flawless functioning of a modern government is not possible. So administrative discretion on detaining authority has to be exercised with great caution, keeping in mind the principles laid under constitution. Thus judicial review is like a check on the powers vested upon the administrative authorities and it helps to curb the misuse of power through wrong means. The constitution operates as a check and keeps the administration of government within the bounds of law. Since article 21 signifies that procedure prescribed by law to deprive a person of his personal liberty must be â€Å"reasonable, just and fair† it is therefore necessary that preventive detention procedure should be â€Å"reasonable, just and fair† and not fanciful or arbitrary. Thus the administration must follow strictly the procedural norms laid down in article 22(4) – (7) and also in the relevant preventive detention law. Suggestions Since discretion amounts to misuse, procedures for preventive detention should be tightened and not the removal of power of detaining authority. Writ of habeas corpus is a remedy against illegal curtailment of freedom of individual by the administrative authority of the state though writ does not punish administrator who is the wrong doer. The person concerned must be set at liberty from wrongful confinement, who can later proceed against the wrong doer in an appropriate manner under article 226 and 32 of the constitution.

The church on homelessness Essay Example For Students

The church on homelessness Essay The church on homelessness Essay The view of the church to the homeless is generous and envangelistic commitment. The church also shows a special love for the poor. The church just being there and its charitable help for the homeless shows what God would want the church to do for the homeless. The church is very conscious that the lack of decent housing threatens the poor. The church is grateful for the creation of organizations that help to make the right to housing possible for many homeless people. We will write a custom essay on The church on homelessness specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Examples of such organizations are shelters and witness of the local churches. Pope Paul VI himself personally promoted a program aimed at providing housing for some families who were living in a Roman slum. The concern of the church for housing for the homeless comes from three ideas: 1) Adequate housing is important if a person is to find fulfillment, both as an individual and as a member of a family and society. 2) The witness that the church seeks to give in helping in the search for a solution to the problems of the poor is a sign of the presence of the kingdom of salvation and liberation. 3) The mission of the church also consists in helping to make society more human. The Catholic Church agrees with these three ideas and also makes its own judgement on the suffering of these millions of people. From the time of the earliest Christian communities, the church has always shown a preference for the poor, the needy, and on the outcasts of society. The way that the church insists on reaching out to the poor through mission collections, food pantries, and shelters shows the preferential love that the church has for these people. The church has always appealed to government programs set up to help the poor and has always supported cities to set up housing programs in the poorest areas As long as there are people without housing, Christians who have dwellings are called upon to assist homeless persons to provide for their basic needs. Many church congregations and ministry organizations of the Catholic Church in America offer food, shelter, respect, care, and counseling to the homeless. Many volunteers help in food pantries, shelters, group homes, and other forms of service with the homeless. The Church as a whole has made a very positive impact in the effort to eliminate homelessness. .

Discover the Real You With Quotes About Me

Discover the Real You With Quotes About Me Discover your hidden talent. Quotes about me help you to unlock your potential. If you have forgotten your inner strength, it is time to regain your glory. Ask yourself, Who is the real me? When you read these inspirational quotes about me, you will find your feet. Marilyn Monroe I have feelings too. I am still human. All I want is to be loved, for myself and for my talent. Maya Angelou I long, as does every human being, to be at home wherever I find myself. Mark Twain I dont like to commit myself about heaven and hell you see, I have friends in both places. George Carlin The reason I talk to myself is that Im the only one whose answers I accept. Marilyn Monroe I restore myself when Im alone. Maya Angelou My life has been one great big joke, a dance thats walked a song thats spoke, I laugh so hard I almost choke when I think about myself. Thomas Jefferson I do not take a single newspaper, nor read one a month, and I feel myself infinitely the happier for it. Walt Whitman Do I contradict myself? Very well, then I contradict myself, I am large, I contain multitudes. Epictetus God has entrusted me with myself. Robert Frost Humour is the most engaging cowardice. With it myself I have been able to hold some of my enemy in play far out of gunshot. Johann von Goethe All the knowledge I possess everyone else can acquire, but my heart is all my own. Confucius And remember, no matter where you go, there you are. Julius Charles Hare Be what you are. This is the first step toward becoming better than you are. Dr. Seuss Be who you are and say what you feel, because those who mind dont matter and those who matter dont mind. H. F. Hedge Every man is his own ancestor and every man his own heir. He devises his own future, and he inherits his own past. Robert Frost Freedom lies in being bold. Pearl Bailey I never really look for anything. What God throws my way comes. I wake up in the morning and whichever way God turns my feet, I go. Robin Casarjean Take the time to come home to yourself every day. Frederick Perls I do my thing and you do yours. I am not in this world to live up to your expectations, and you are not in this world to live up to mine. You are you and I am I, and if by chance we find each other, then it is beautiful. If not, it cant be helped. Virginia Satir I own me, and therefore, I can engineer me. I am me, and I am okay. Rene Descartes I think; therefore I am.

Taking a Final Exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Taking a Final Exam - Essay Example This will not result in a high grade because information needs to be taken in gradually. If you have revised all your study material leading up to the exam, then it is best not to do any study on the day of the exam because your mind needs to be relaxed and at ease. Carrying on from this idea, part of your preparation is getting enough rest the night before a crucial exam. The likelihood is that tiredness will cause you to perform below your capabilities. A rested mind increases the chances of doing well because you will be able to think clearly when answering each question. Furthermore, you can better prepare for a final exam by giving yourself short quizzes to check if you know the material. This can be best done with one of your classmates—you can even quiz each other. These questions should simple questions from your textbook. In conclusion, exam preparation is a key part of performing well on a final exam. If you fail to prepare properly for a final exam, then you should expect to do poorly. On the other hand, if you study all your material, rest your mind, and quiz yourself, the chances of scoring highly will increase dramatically. The more of these tips that can be done means it is more likely that you will attain a good

Culture, Technology, and Expansion Discussion Essay

Culture, Technology, and Expansion Discussion - Essay Example in which a whole range of political and social patterns as well as institutions that have been conventionally considered part of the European history were formed. During this period, a range of cultural identities and political boundaries were developed in many European countries that included Germany, France, Italy, Iberia, British Isles, Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. The time from 1000 to 1300 was when there happened a chain reaction in terms of advancements in the society, political life and economy which led to the development of new traditions in art and literature, scholarship, philosophy and religion. A vast majority of these trends have become intrinsic features of the contemporary European culture. Technology played a very important role in this cultural expansion. The rapid change of economy in the medieval Europe can fundamentally be attributed to the innovations in agriculture, expansion of territories and identification of newer construction techniques for the development of cities which was not achievable without the advancement of

Does nuisance law reflect well notions of corrective, distributive and Essay

Does nuisance law reflect well notions of corrective, distributive and retributive justice - Essay Example In a more sophisticated view, nuisance in accordance with English law can  generally be separated into two kinds of torts a) private nuisance, where the dealings of a respondent are becoming a cause to obstruct the usage of land or its bounties to be enjoyed unreasonably b)  public nuisance where the respondent’s doings are becoming a cause of inconvenience to the life of Her Majesty’s subjects. In the eyes of the law of the land, the public nuisance is also considered as an offense. The tort law allows the claimant to enjoy their right to provide evidence that the respondent’s doings are causing obstruction unreasonably. In fewer situations, the intention of the respondent should be taken into consideration. The question at this point of time comes in the minds of general public that what is the difference between the public nuisance and the private nuisance. ... We may find in the books of laws more comprehensive theories on the principals of justice, which by all means are important factors to provide justice at the doorstep of a victim and aim at to create harmony and brotherhood in the civilized society. According to John Rawls statement, â€Å"Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought†4. Branches of Justice It ensures justice is not done but seems to be done. Introducing punishment for the violators against their crimes plays an important role in reducing the crime rate in the society. Until and unless exemplary punishment is given to the criminals, no society can claim enforcement of law and order situation in the country. Under the mentioned scenario, the justice can be segregated into following segments: Corrective Justice Corrective justice at first integrates the positions of the petitioner and the respondent. The injustice done by the respondent and suffered by the petitioner at th e hands of defendant forms a solo juridical event in which each stakeholder participates in the presence of the other. In accordance with corrective justice, liability normally relates to either of the participants, which are in isolation from the other. Take the example, of the defendant, which is being subject to economic benefits or it is possible to ensure compensation to the petitioner’s loss. However, there is another alternate for stakeholders to settle their disputes out side the court purview5. Secondly, corrective justice provides an opportunity of ratification both for the petitioner and the defendant. The responsibility of the court is to examine the case minutely before announcing the judgment

Comparison of American and French Revolutions

Comparison of American and French Revolutions Revolution have different definition, according to the way it been understood by people/society, some people/society see the idea of revolution as less important and unnecessary, while some people/society feel there is need for revolution because revolution bring change for good and progress in a particular society, the French and American revolution is a good example of the advantage of revolution. So let me give a brief definition and explanation of revolution. REVOLUTION Revolution can be defined as the modification of a government from one change to another, because of it tyrannical and corrupt nature. Revolution can also be seen as a change in the way a country is been rule/governed, it usually to a political unit, and lead to violence or war, people forceful overthrow a government that are oppressing, taking advantage of the people, misusing their position as government and take away their freedom and rights as citizens. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The American continent was discovered towards the end of 15th century, in the American revolution was a political upheaval that took place between 1775-1783,the American colonies rejected monarchy and aristocracy in a revolutionary move, overthrew the authority of Britain and founded the united states of American, the American were been rule by the Britain for a very long time and were not happy with the way there been treated and needed a change so that lead to their raise for freedom and declaration of independence The American where against the colonial administration because their felt their deserve the right of the Englishmen. When the American Revolution began in 1775 the American colonists were not yet fighting for independence from Britain.instead, they were attempting to preserve their rights as british citizens which had been violated by taxation and military oppression. The complex causes of the revolution ultimately led to the colonists issuing a declaration of independence and fighting a war for freedom from British rule. After winning the French and Indian war, King George II decided that it was time to tighten Britain’s control over the colonies there were several reasons from this, one was because the Indians still posed a threat to the british government and second, the French indian war which lasted seven years had cost Britain a lot of money. The king wanted the colonies to help pay for all those expenses. The first of several laws to accomplish this was the proclamation of 1763 which forbade the colonists to move westward part the Appalachian mountain.in 1764, Britain passed a law that prevented the colonies to print and use their own money. These and several other laws passed to tighten the English reign on the colonies brought out a lot of anger and frustration.But the one law that really angered the colonists was the: STAMP ACTS OF March 22, 1765 Which taxed all kinds of printed paper /documents from wills licences, newspapers, diplomas, even playing cards. There have to pay for any printing, the colonists could not take any more so they started speaking not against the new taxes.in October of 1765, nine of colonies sent their representatives to new york city to discuss what they thought of the stamp act, they decided that the stamp act and all the other taxation laws were illegal since the colonies were not represented in the british parliament. The Declaratory Acts (March 18, 1766) Insisted that parliament retained full power to make laws for the colonies â€Å"in all cases whatever Establish that Britain had the right to tax the colonies†¦Ã¢â‚¬ the said colonies and planations in America have been,are and of right ought to be subordinate unto and dependent upon the imperial crown and parliament of great britains† The Townshend Acts (1787) The parliament passed a new series of taxes called the Townshend acts.american colonists now had to pay taxes on a number of popular british goods that they imported from English, these included items such as tea,paints,glass,ink and dyes so that there can able to pay the salaries of the judges and governors. Though these taxes were actually quite small,the outcry from many American leaders were huge. The taxes were imposed to help make the colonial officials independent of the colonist and induded duties on glass, paper and tea. Smugglers increased their activities to avoid the tax leading to more troops in boston. The Tea Acts (1773) It was a act of the parliament of great britain.its principa overt objective was reduce the massive surplus of tea held by financially troubled British east India company in its London warehouses and help the struggling company survive. A related objective was to undercut the price of illegal tea, smuggled into Britain’s worth American colonies. This was supposed to convince the colonists to purchase company tea to North America and the right to the duty-free export of tea from Britain, although the tax imposed by the Townshend acts and collected in the colonies remained in force, it received the royal assent on may 10, 1773 Colonists in the thirtheen colonies recognised the implications of the act’s provisions, and coalition of merchants,smugglers and artisans similar to that which had opposed the stamp act 1765 mobilized opposition to delivery and distribution of the tea. The company’s authorised consignees were harassed, and in many colonies successful efforts were made to prevent the tea from being landed.in boston, this resistance culminated in the boston tea party on December 16, 1773, when colonists (some disguised as native americans) boarded tea ships anchored in the harbour and dumped their tea cargo overboard.parliamentary reaction to this event included passage of the coercive acts, Coercive acts: designed to punish Massachusetts for its resistance, and the appointment of general Thomas gage as royal governor of Massachusetts.these actions further raised tensions that broke out into the American war of independence in april 1775. The intolerable acts In response to the bosten tea party, the king imposed the intolerable acts The major causes of the American revolution, the intolerable acts were the boston party act, closing the port of boston until the dutch east India company been repaid for the destroyed tea The Massachusetts government act, allowing royal officials to be tried in Britain if the king felt it necessary for fair justice; The quartering act, ordering the colonies to provide lodging for british soldiers The Quà ©bec act, expanding british territory in Canada and guaranteeing the free practice of roman Catholicism The declaration of independence The declaration opens with a preamble describing the document’s necessity in explaining why the colonies have overthrown their place as a separate nation in the world. All men are created equal and there are certain unalienable rights that governments should never violate.these rights include the right to life,liberty and the pursuit of happiness.when a government fails to protect those rights, it is not only the right,but also the duty of the people to ovefrthrow that government.in its place,the people should establish a government that is designed to protect those rights.governenrs are rarely overthrown,and should not be overthrown for trival reasons.in this case,a long history of abuses had led the colonists to overthrow a tyrannical government. The king of great Britain,george111,is guilty of 27 specific abuses.the king interfered with the colonists right to self-government and for a fair judicial system.acting with parliament,the king also instituted legislation that affected the colonies without their consent.this legislation levied taxes on the colonists.it also required hem to quarter british soldiers,removed their right to trail by jury,and prevented them from trading freely,additionally,the king and parliament are guilty of outright destruction of American life and property by their refusal to protect the colonies borders,their confiscation of American ships at sea,and their intent to hire foreign mercenaries to fight against the colonists. The colonial governments tried to reach a peaceful reconciliation of these differences with great Britain,but were continually ignored.colonists who appealed to british citizens were similarly ignored,despite their shared common heritage and their just cause.after many peaceful attempts,the colonists have no choice but to declare independence from great Britain The new nation will be called the united states of America and will have no further connections with great Britain.the new government will reserve the right to levy war,make peace, make alliances with foreign nations ,conduct trade and do anything else that nations do. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION The French revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799 that profoundly affected French, marking the decline of powerful monarchies and the rise of democracy and nationalism. Popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and aristocracy grew during a financial crisis following two expensive wars and years of bad harvests.demands for change were formulated in terms of enlightenment ideals and caused the covocation of the estates-general in may 1789.the first year of the revolution saw members of the third estate taking control,the assault in july,the passage of declaration of the rights of man and citizen in august,and a women’s march on versailes that forced the royal court back to paris in October.a central event of the first stage was the abolition of feudalism and the old rules,taxes,courts and privileges left over from the age of feudalism on 4 August 1789.yhe next stage was dominated by struggles between various liberal assemblies and right-wing supporters of the monarchy intent on thwarting major reforms.a republic was proclaimed in September 1792 in a momentous event that led to international condemnation. The king Louis xiv was executed on 21 january 1793. External threats closely shaped the course of the revolution. The revolutionary wars beginning in 1792 ultimately featured French victories that facilitated the conquest of the Italian peninsula, the low countries and most territories west of rhine –achievements that had eluded previous French governments for centuries.internally,popular agitation radicalized therevolution significantly,culminating in the rise of maximilien Robespierre and the jacobins.the dictatorship imposed by the committee of public safety during the reign of terror,from 1793 until 1794,caused up to 40,000 deaths inside france abolished slavery in the colonies and secured the borders of the new republic from its enemies.the reign of terror ended with the overthrow and executive of Robespierre and the other leading jacobins in the thermidorian reaction,an executive council known as the directory then assumed control of the French state in 1795 and held power until 1799.dogged by charges of corruption,the di rectory collapsed in a coup led by napoleon Bonaparte in 1799,widely seen as the final year of the revolution,napoleon went on to establish the consulate and later the first empire,setting the stage for a wider array of global conflicts in the Napoleonic wars. The modern era has unfolded in the shadow of the French revolution.french society itself underwent a transformation as feudal,aristocratic and religious privileges disappeared and old ideas about tradition and hierarchy were abruptly overthrown under the mantra of literate,egalite,fraternite.globally.the revolution accelerated the rise of republics and democracies,the liberalism,nationalism,socialism and secularism, the development of modern political ideologies and the practice of total war some of its central document. CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1) International: struggle for hegemony and empire outstrips the fiscal resources of the state (2) political conflict: conflict between the monarchy and the nobility over throw†reforms†of the tax system led to paralysis and bankruptcy. (3) Social antagonisms between two groups the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie (4) Ineffective ruler: Louis xvi, he was a poor leadership that was not performing his function as a king. (5) economic hardship, especially the agrarian crisis of 1788-89 generates generates popular discontent and disorders caused by food shortages. Financial crisis was the major and main problem why the French people raise for a change that lead to revolution. The people were having problem of poor harvest and so many people were going hungry and the king was not even showing any concern, the king was just spending carelessly, while the people of France was starving and surviving. The similarities between the French and American revolution. Both were by a clique of wealthy bourgeois anxious to pay less tax. Both used propaganda to enlist the common people as foot soldiers of the revolt: in one case the rights of man; in the other, the parallel pious platitudes in the declaration of independence Both were equally hypocritical Both were been oppressed and treated badly Both were not impress with their government/rule and wanted a change. The American and French revolution made a lot of impact in the life of people all over the world, it makes us understand that we just don’t sit down and watch when our government are not doing what there supposed to do. Everybody want a change for good.

The rate of reaction of Succinate dehydrogenase :: GCSE Chemistry Coursework Investigation

The rate of reaction of Succinate dehydrogenase Introduction: Enzymes are protein molecules that function as biological catalysts that can help break larger molecules into smaller molecules while remaining unchanged themselves. They speed up the chemical reactions by lowering the energy of activation barrier, are specific to one molecule. The enzyme’s specificity arises from its active site, an area with a shape corresponding to the molecule with which it reacts (the substrate). The shape of the enzyme where the chemical binds only allows the binding of that particular chemical, or inhibitor substrates that are structually similar to the substrate, competing for the active site. The enzyme and the substrate slot together (like a key for a lock, or by induced fit) forming an enzyme–substrate complex that allows the reaction to take place. An enzymes activity is affected by its environment. Each enzyme has a temperature and pH level at which its activity is greatest and the reaction it catalyses proceeds at its fastest rate. The rate of enzyme-catalysed reactions increases as the temperature and pH balances approach its optimum level. At higher or lower temperatures and pH balances, the enzyme molecules become damaged or 'denatured'. They cannot catalyse the reaction very well, if at all, and the damage is usually permanent (Campbell, et al, 2006). The aim of this study was to investigate the rate of reaction of succinate dehydrogenase, an enzyme extracted from chicken hearts. The rate of reaction was analysed considering two factors: pH and temperature. The ability for the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase to oxidise two alternative substrates (malonate and propionate) will also be examined. Materials and Method Part 1. Effect of pH on enzyme activity Blender 50 grams of fresh chicken hearts - 2 days old purchased from local butcher: Rays meats Sorrento. Chicken hearts were kept in fridge until prepared the evening of purchase. 3 test tubes Distilled water 0.2M Na2HPO4 with 100ml distilled water (solution 1) 0.2M NaH2PO4 with 100ml distilled water (solution 2) 0.1M succinate with 100ml distilled water 0.0003 M DPIP with 100ml distilled water BUFFERS pH 5 buffer – 1ml solution 1 to 49ml of solution 2, mix – add 50 ml distilled water pH 7.3 buffer – 75ml solution 1 to 25ml solution 2, mix – add 100ml distilled water pH 9 buffer - 10ml solution 1 to 10ml distilled water Stopwatch Enzyme preparation: (Wright, 2005) Chicken hearts were prepared according to notes in Lab (Wright 2005). This liquid formed the enzyme. A rack containing 3 test tubes were arranged containing: tube 1 – 5.8 ml pH5 buffer 1 ml 0.1M succinate .2 ml enzyme tube 2. - 5.8 ml pH7.3 buffer 1 ml 0.1M succinate .2 ml enzyme tube 3. - 5.8 ml pH9 buffer 1 ml 0.

Economic Theory Essay

Two of the primary tasks in the world of Economics are prediction and evaluation. This assignment illustrates, at a rudimentary level, how models, techniques and methods constructed or borrowed from Economic Theory or other Sciences respectively are used to help accomplish these tasks. To do so, we consider a standard theoretical model of consumer choices in an economy in which the only activity is the exchange of goods. Due to the above-mentioned we can say that the most powerful technique used to predict the consequences of policies or future trends is modeling. A model is an abstraction intended to convey the essence of some particular aspect of the real world. Most economic models assume the existence of adequate information, yet information is a costly and scarce resource. Good models predict well enough to increase our understanding of certain situations, even though they may not predict them perfectly and there may be related situations in which the same models do not predict as well as expected. Last but not least there are models that constructed without using any numerical data; these are based entirely on economic theory. We shall begin by looking at some of the ways in which forecasting techniques can help us to predict future trends. Most business and economic decisions rest upon forecasts of future conditions. Methods of forecasting may be roughly categorized as follows: * Opinion polling * Mechanical extrapolations * Barometric techniques * Statistical and econometric methods Finally, forecasting techniques vary widely in their accuracy and sophistication. The most accurate technique is to be preferred, subject to the availability of data, expertise and finance and to the nature of the  forecast required. OPINION POLLING The assumption here is that by asking people who are likely to be directly involved, such as consumers or the sales force, attitudes and opinions which affect economic decisions can be assessed and predicted in advance. Opinion polling is a subjective method of forecasting made up largely of a weighted or unweighted averaging of expectations and attitudes. This general idea of developing informed and deliberated polling opinion has had a relatively length history successful experimentation beginning roughly during the 1970s in the U.S.A. In statistics polling is about probability sampling. A good poll: locates people who fairly represent the population we’re interested in; asks them fair, comprehensible and useful questions; calculates results fairly, without reaching beyond the data; and  is reported so people can understand where it does and does not apply. The importance of opinion polling and the way it can be done is shown in the below Figure: Opinion polling is a very powerful technique used to predict future trends. Based upon probability sampling it can give people many answers upon many problems in the society. Depending on the size of the sample, the results are relatively accurate, scientific representation of the entire public’s considered opinion on perplexing issues. Today there are a lot of companies which provide a wide variety of consultancy services and offer top quality research based solutions to their clients’ problems. They also provide full service market research process, from defining research objectives through analysis and presentation of data. To achieve their goals they use research methodologies, advanced statistical analysis and strategic relevant and decision reports. Their credibility and reputation is reflected in the fact that their publicly released findings are regularly quoted by the media (press, radio and television). Additionally, these companies are leading agencies in Socio-Political public opinion polls and Political Candidate Evaluation research. Another aspect of opinion polling is exit-poll. For example scientists use exit-poll method to predict who is going to win in elections. The exit-poll method is not 100% accurate, but the error between the real results and the one’s from exit-poll is very-very small. Asking a small sample of population inside a society it can predict whether the conservative of socialist party is going to be elected. Finally, opinion polling is also used by companies to know which product of theirs is more consumed by people. Asking a small sample of people using questionnaires (more often) they can realize which product of theirs is more consumed by people, which product are less consumed and tries to find means of improvement for others. MECHANICAL EXTRAPOLATIONS This is probably the most frequently adopted method of forecasting. It involves the basic assumption that past patterns of economic behavior continues to the extent that past behavior can be used to predict the future. It has the attraction of also being relatively cheap in that the company is likely to posses most of the relevant historical information. Last but not least, the mechanical methods of forecasting rely on future conditions being an extent of past ones. Also, this method might consist of taking a time series of historical sales figures, and fitting a trend line to it by eye as shown in the figure below: This can then be used to read off sales predictions for the required future dates. To produce this line between the dependent and independent variables of data, as shown in the above figure, the ordinary least-squares (OLS) technique uses a mathematical formula to illustrate this line. However, the technique also produces a measure of the explanatory power of the relationship on the basis of the relationships observed in the original data. A mathematical formula for producing this line is: Where a and b in this equation have been estimated using regression analysis (a set of statistical techniques used to quantify the relationship between two or more variables). BAROMETRIC TECHNIQUES In addition with mechanical extrapolations, barometric techniques assume that present happenings can give an indication of future events. Also, this technique is based on the observation that there are lagged relationships between many economic time series. Moreover, to give an indication of future events, there are three types of indicators as far as economic activity. Leading indicators are those which tend to herald future changes in the course of business activity. Coincident indicators move in step with the cycle; examples of these might include aggregate levels of sales, employment and industrial production. Finally, there are lagging indicators, which trail behind the level of economic activity. Although it is possible to isolate various leading indicators the direction of movements in each does not presage movements in economic activity with complete accuracy. The reason is that the lead-time between their behavior and the ensuing change in economic activity is not likely to be constant. Nowadays, many companies who want to see which of their product is more consumed by people, they make a statistical figure in order to calculate this. Using barometric techniques they can find which product of theirs is more consumed by people, which is not going too well and try to give improvements for others. So, they can indicate from present happenings, how a product can be in the future. STATISTICAL AND ECONOMETRIC METHODS Science is given as â€Å"truth ascertained by observation, experiment, and induction†. The purpose of science known as â€Å"statistics† is to provide the means for measuring the amount of subjectivity that goes into the scientists’ conclusions and thus to separate â€Å"science† from â€Å"opinion†. Hence, statistical and econometric methods, similar to those used in time series regression can be used to analyze the economic relationships between variables. Many of the firms forecasting problems can be solved with a single equation econometric model. Laws of probability are applied to this model in order to determine what â€Å"chances† are for the various possible outcomes of the experiment. The first step in the construction of such a model is to specify the hypotheses, which purport to explain the relationships between the variables. Hypothesis testing is the process of inferring from a sample (a collection of some elements of a population) whether or not to accept a certain statement about the population. The statement itself is called the hypothesis. When the model is constructed it gives the businessman the opportunity of experimenting to test the predicted results of various strategies. There is a vast variety of companies offering a full-service market  research which means the capability to successfully undertake any research project from the conceptual stage through the design, data collection, tabulation, analysis, interpretation of findings, recommendations, and presentation. The projects they undertake span a broad array of industries, types of studies, experimental designs and analytical statistical techniques. They are skilled in the wide variety of quantitative and qualitative techniques, providing their clients with a seamless connection between all phases of the research program. Their full range of custom research for Consumer and Business to Business research includes the following: * Tracking studies * Product testing * Taste testing * Home-use tests * Advertising research * Strategic research * Product Positioning research * Concept tests * Customer satisfaction tests * Etc.

S Dickens, innit - Emphasis

S Dickens, innit S Dickens, innit He began by turning Shakespeare into txt spk. Now its Dickens for da yoof of today. Martin Baum, a father from Bournemouth, has rewritten Dickens in yoof-speak in order he claims to get children interested in reading. Kids today have invented their own language, says Baum. And I use this language to try and engage them. Judge his alleged mission as you will, while you contemplate his opening to Da Tale of Two Turfs: It was da best of times and, not being funny or nuffing, but it was da worst of times, to be honest

What Is the SAT Experimental Section

What Is the SAT Experimental Section SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips In many regards, College Board has made the SAT a lot more transparent. As of March 2016, the majority of the test has a very clear and consistent format - with one exception. In recent months, some students encountered an unexpected 20-minute experimental section at the end of their tests. This guide will explain everything we know so far about thisexperimental section and how it differs from the experimental section on tests past. Read on to learn about this extra material and what it means for your test prep. What's the SAT Experimental Section? For many months leading up the new SAT, students and SAT experts thought the redesigned test had eliminated the experimental section.College Board made no mention of it, and thefree practice testsit released featured no trace of extra questions. Then, on February 4th, just a month before the new SAT was set to debut, a College Board officialsaid in a conference for test center coordinatorsin Boston that some students would get an experimental section. College Boarddidn't elaborate much further on what this meant. When counselors received theirAdvising and AdmissionHandbook, they saw these instructions: "The SAT given in a standard testing room (to students with no testing accommodations) consists of four components - five if the optional 50-minute Essay is taken - with each component timed separately. The timed portion of the SAT with Essay (excluding breaks) is three hours and 50 minutes. To allow for pretesting, some students taking the SAT with no Essay will take a fifth, 20-minute section. Any section of the SAT may contain both operational and pretest items."* *Emphasis mine. Operational items, by the way, are questionsthat count toward scores. Pretest itemsare not scored and don't factor in. Despite their declared commitment to transparency, College Board has been pretty opaque about the experimental section and whether or not it counts toward students' final scores! When the new SAT was administered in March and May, some students got an extra 20-minute section at the end. All the students that got the experimental section had chosen not to take the essay. All students who opted for the essay section did not have the extra experimental section. It could have been Writing, Reading, or Math. It's possible thatthis experimental section is unscored and meant to test out future material. It may be thatCollege Board is being vague on this point to make sure that students still take this section seriously. If students knew it was unscored, then they might not try as hard - or even skip it completely - and then College Board wouldn't be able to test out material for future tests. At the same time, no one seems to know yet whether or not this section indeed has "operational items." At this point, if you get an extra 20-minute section during your test, you should treat it no differently than you do the rest of the SAT. Before getting into additional tips on how the experimental section affects your test prep, let's compare it to the experimental section on the old SAT. What was that experimental section like, and what's the purpose of experimental sections on the SAT in the first place? What Was the Experimental Section on the Old SAT? The experimental section on the old SAT was much more easily understood than the one on the new SAT. College Board was transparent about the fact that there was an experimental section on every SAT. All students got this extra section. It was unidentified, so they couldn't know which section it was. The experimental, or variable, section was an extra 25-minutes that could have appearedasany subject - Math, Writing, or Critical Reading. It remained unscored, andtest-takers couldn’t predict which section was the experimental one. College Board kept it unidentified so that studentswould take it as seriously as any other section. In theory, the experimental section was indistinguishable from other sections of the SAT. In reality, though, and especially on test administrations immediately preceding the redesigned test, students noticed some strange questions unlike anything they’d prepared for on practice tests. Some of these unusual questions, as it turned out, resembled material that has sinceappeared on the redesigned SAT. So even though past students didn't know which section was experimental, they did know to expect one. On the new SAT, many students were surprised to be met with an extra 20-minute section. So why does College Board include these extra sections on the SAT?What exactly is their purpose? Why Are ThereExperimental Sections on the SAT? In the past, the SAT experimental section was given for three main reasons: to test out future material, to ensure fairness and gauge difficulty level, and to detect any evidence of cheating. Presumably, the experimental section on the new SAT hassimilarpurposes. Let's look at each function in a bit more detail. To Test Out Future Material College Board, or rather its contracted test developer, Educational Testing Service (ETS), used the experimental section for years to try out new questions and material for future tests. In the past, ETS mainly used this section for developing near identicaltests. More recently, though, the experimental sections included especially novel question types as ETS worked toward therevampedSAT. If you took the "old" SAT in 2014 or 2015, you may have felt likean SAT guinea pig. The fact that College Board's been unclear about the experimental section on the new SAT suggests that it's still being used to test out future material. They want students to take it seriously, so they can get an accurate sense of the quality of their questions. At the same time, College Board has suggested that any section on the SAT, including this extra 20-minute one, could have a combination of "operational" and "pretest" items. Therefore, we can't know for sure yet whether or not every question on the extra 20-minute section really is unscored, even though only a fraction of students are taking it. To Ensure Fairness and Gauge Difficulty Level In years past, ETS used the data from the experimental section to determine whether questions were fair and comparable to past tests. They also analyzed the results across gender, race, socioeconomic status, and other social categories to ensure that the questions were equally accessible to students across demographics. Of course, manywould argue that SAT scores have always correlated with levels of family income and parental education and will continue to do so. This correlationkeeps the SAT and its validity a matter of controversy.It alsounderlies the statements given bymany colleges about why they've recently adoptedtest optional or test flexible admissions policies. Beyond working toward fairness, ETS also used results from the experimental section to gain insight into the levels of questions. If 80% of students got a question correct, for instance, then ETS could categorize it in the "easy" level. This understanding helped test designers select and arrange questions on new tests. Presumably, College Board is analyzing data from the 20-minute experimental section of the SAT in a similar way. One notable difference, however, is that only students who opted out of the essay section weregiven this extra section. To Find Evidence ofCheating Finally, inrare cases, ETS used the experimental section to detect cheating. There have been a few cases where students gained access to questions and answers before test day. If a student performed amazingly on all sections except the experimental one, then ETS could audit the test to investigate for any unfair advantage. Any students who had access to the test beforehand would have known which section was experimental (and probably freak out a little on the inside). But of course,the majority of students would never cheat on this important test, and they also would have beenhard pressed to figure out which section was experimental. Let's consider that last issue in some more detail. Did takers of the old SAT know which section was experimental? How obvious is it to takers of the SAT now? CanTest-Takers KnowWhich Section IsExperimental? The answer to this question varies depending on whether students took the old SAT or are taking the redesigned SAT of today. As such, let's consider them separately, starting with takers of the SAT today (ie, in March of 2016 and after). Takingthe New SAT Takers of the new SAT could tell which section was experimental. The new SAT has a straightforward format. It starts with a 65-minute Reading section, followed by a 35-minute Writing section. Then you get a 25-minute Math No Calculator and a 55-minute Math with Calculator. Thus the unexpected20-minute section of unpredictable subject matter was clearly the experimental one. Students who registered for the SAT with Essay wentonto the 50-minute essay as their last section. Students who opted out of the essay likely thought they were all done, but many then had to takean extra 20-minute section. As this section was not represented in College Board's breakdown of the test and practice tests, it appeared to be the experimental one. Takers of the old SAT had it a little differently, as you'll see below. Taking the Old SAT Takers of theoldSAT, unlike many who took the new SAT, knew to expect an experimental section. However, they couldn't easily figure out which one it was. They knew that the experimental section was 25-minutes, but the old SAT also had fiveother 25-minute sections. At the end of their test, students could deduct which subject their experimental section covered, Math, Critical Reading, or Writing, byfiguring out where they had extra material. However, they had no sure way of knowing which Math, Critical Reading, or Writing section was experimental. There was one exception to this rule. While most experimental sections blended in indistinguishably from the rest of the test, a few on 2014 and 2015 tests stood out for their unusual question types. A few students noted that they got "evidence-based" questions on Reading, which asked for the evidence to their answer to a previous question. These question types were unprecedented on the old SAT, but they later showed up in abundance on the redesigned test, as you've seen if you've taken or prepped for it at all. Now that you have a sense of the experimental sections on the old and new SAT, let's figure out how this extra section affects your test prep, if at all. What can you doto prepare for an extra 20-minute section of unpredictable content? Should the experimental section affect how you trainfor the SAT? How Does the Experimental Section Affect Your Prep? Just knowing about the experimental section is one important way to prepare for the test. If you're taking the SAT without the essay section, then don't be too surprised if you get a 20-minute section in Math, Reading, or Writing as a fifth section, after the Math with Calculator. If you're taking the SAT with Essay, then so far it seems that you don't have to worry about the experimental section. Unfortunately, College Board hasn't been too explicit about this section, who gets it, or what it means. We'll try our best to give you advance warning if they end up adding an extra section to the SAT with Essay version of the test, too! Besides learning about the experimental section, there are a few additional tips to consider when prepping for the SAT. Take All Questions Seriously Let's say you've signed up for the SAT without the essay and made it through your first threehours of testing. Then you get an extra 20-minute section in Math, Reading, or Writing. It might feel all too easy to blow off this section and just start filling in random bubbles. This would be a mistake, though. College Board has said that all sections, including this 20-minute one, contain operational and pretest items. There's no way of saying for sure that your performance on these questions won't be counted toward your final scores at all. As you saw above, College Board also used the experimental section in past years to determine the validity of scores. If you did great on other sections but bombed the experimental section, then this inconsistency raised red flags. We don't know yet whether the 20-minute section is used for these same purposes, but dismissing it as insignificant doesn't seem worth the risk! While you may start to feel fatigued at the end of such a long test, try your best to finish up strong. That brings us to the next tip - prepare for a longer test. Prepare for a Longer Test If you're taking the SAT without the essay, then you might benefit from prepping with longer tests. Taking timed practice tests is an important part of your prep, as it allows you to hone your time management skills and get better at staying alert over a long period of testing. Since the experimental section adds 20 minutes, you could simulate the experience by adding extra questions to your own practice tests. There aren't actually any 20-minute sections on the official SAT practice tests - the one that comes closest is the 25-minute Math No Calculator section - so you might have to create this extra section from scratch by collecting extra practice questions. Since the 65-minute Reading section usually has 52questions, you could collect 16or so to answer. For Writing, you might answer about 25questions. Math No Calculator could stay about the same, perhaps taking away two or three questions. For the Math with Calculator, you could design a section with about 13 or 14questions. Don't worry about getting the proportion of time to questions exactly right. The important point is that you add 20 minutes or so of additional testing time with SAT practice questionsto train your focus over a longer period of time. Of course, it's unclear whether all students who are taking the SAT without the essay will get an experimental section. This unpredictability leads us to our final point - stay adaptable! Stay Adaptable For the most part, you can know exactly what to expect on SAT test day, from testing procedures to the structure of the test to the types of questions you'll encounter. The main source of unpredictability is this 20-minute experimental section, which may feature additional Reading, Writing, or Math questions. Since College Board has historically used the experimental section to test out future material, it may add unusual question types that you're not prepared for. If you encounter something weird, try not to let it mess with your head. Just doyour best and roll with the punches. While you can't know for sure and should take every section seriously, many items on this section might be "pretest," or unscored, anyway. At least, that's what you can tell yourself so you can keep your cool and stay confident! Again, you can largelyknow what to expect on test day. As long as you practicefor answering questions and managing your time, you can expect to achieve similar scores as you have on practice tests. By prepping with a plan, you can feel confident about the test, with or without an extra experimental section! What's Next? Are you curious about other changes to the SAT this year? Check out the ten major changes you need to know about the redesigned SAT. Once you've familiarized yourself with the changes, you're ready to start studying! This expert guide discusses the best ways to study for the SAT. Are you looking to hone in on a particular section? Check out our ultimate study guides for the Reading section, Writing section, and Math sections of the SAT, along with our step-by-step instructions for writing the essay! Want to learn more about the SAT but tired of reading blog articles? Then you'll love our free, SAT prep livestreams. Designed and led by PrepScholar SAT experts, these live video events are a great resource for students and parents looking to learn more about the SAT and SAT prep. Click on the button below to register for one of our livestreams today!